Summary of Auditing Theory Chap 1 & 2

Assurance services – deal with audit or review of historical financial information and assurances dealing with subject matters other than historical financial information. * designed to enhance the degree of confindence of the intended users other than the responsible party about the outcome of the evaluation or measurement of a subject matter against criteria FF. are the broad categories of services under the umbrella of assurance services: 1. Risk assessment 2. Information system reliability 3.Adequacy of security over Electronic commerce transactions, electronic documents, and support systems 4. Effectiveness of Health care performance measurement systems 5. Reliability and relevance of Business performance measurement * it evolves naturally from Attestation services, which in turn evolve from audit * The root of all three is independent verification Non-assurance services (Related Services) – pertain to compilation of financial information , agreed-upon-procedures a nd other related services which do not result in the expression of conclusion that provides a level of assurance.Auditing – is a systematic process of objectively obtaining and evaluating evidence regarding selected assertions about economic actions and events to ascertain the degree of correspondence between those assertions and established criteria and communicating the result to interested users. * determining whether recorded information properly reflects the economic events that occurred during the accounting period. Elements: * Systematic process * Objectivity * Obtaining and evaluating evidence * Assertions about economic actions and events * Degree of correspondence†¦ stablished criteria * Communicating results * Interested users Attestation – refers to an expert’s written communication of a conclusion about the reliability of someone else’s assertions. * when a practitioner is engaged to issue a written communication that expresses a conclus ion about the reliability of a written assertion * a type of assurance service whose subject matter (both FS and non-FS in nature) * offering some level of assurance Ex. of attest services: 1. Future-oriented financial information 2. Management’s discussion and analysis 3.Effectiveness of internal control 4. Compliance with statutory, regulatory and contractual obligations Consulting services (Management Advisory Services) – professional services that provide advice and assistance concerning an entity’s organization, personnel, finances, operations, systems, or other activities. * an analytical process that typically involves some combination of activities relating to: a) objective-setting b) fact-finding c) definition of problems or opportunities d) evaluation of alternatives e) development of recommendations including actions ) communication of results g) implementation h) follow-up – reports are generally written in a narrative style – nature an d scope is determined by agreement between the professional accountant and the client Areas of consulting services: 1. Consultations 2. Advisory 3. Implementation 4. Transaction 5. Staff and other support 6. Product AssuranceConsulting * three party-two party contractscontracts * to improve quality-to recommend of informationuses for infos. * decision makers & -Outcomes info. used for optimum decisions * intended to improve-designed to ecision maker’s improve client’s condition indirectly condition’s thru directly thru recommendationsfindings, conclusions and recommendation Four conditions that create demand for audits: 1. Potential conflict of interest between those who prepare information & those who use information. 2. Information can have substantial economic consequences for a decision maker. 3. Expertise is often required for preparing and verifying information 4. Users of information frequently are prevented from directly assessing the quality of informat ionStewardship or agency Theory – implies that the manager, as well as the owner, wants the credibility an audit adds to the financial statement assertions. Types of Audits 1. Compliance Audits – to determine compliance with criteria, standards, or rules set by an authoritative body 2. Management Audit (Effectiveness of Performance) – an examination and evaluation of the activities of management 3. Performance Audit – analyzes an organization’s structure, internal systems, work flow and managerial performance 4. Comprehensive Audit – includes the components of compliance, performance and financial statements udit 5. Operational Audit – to determine the extent to which some aspect of an organization’s operating activities is functioning effectively 6. Internal Audit – an independent, ovjective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s operations. Helps by bringing a syste matic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control and governance process 7. Environmental Audit – environmental matters which may have an impact on the financial statements 8.Forensic Audit – examination of evidence 9. Financial Statements Audit Types of Auditors 1. External (independent) auditors – public accountants, both individuals or firms 2. Internal auditors – services for a single organization for which they are employed on a full-time basis, typically reporting to the board of directors 3. Government auditors – full-time employees of the government tasked to determine compliance with laws, statutes, policies and procedures 4. Forensic auditors – financial auditing specialists who focus on unearthing the truthAuditing and Assurance Standards Council (AASC) – body authorized to establish and promulgate generally accepted auditing standards (GAAS) in the Philippines * The main dist inguishing feature of auditing and related services is the level of assurance provided by the auditor in the engagement. * An auditor becomes associated with the financial information through the attachment of a report or when consenting to the use of auditor’s name in professional connection. Remedies if known that the auditor’s name is inappropriately used: 1.Request management to stop the inappropriate association of auditor’s name 2. Inform any known third party users 3. Seek legal advice Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) – legislation passed in the USA in response to increased occurrence of corporate fraud. * gave Public Companies Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) authority to establish auditing standards, quality control standards and independence standards for auditor of public companies * Philippine Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in its Resolution No. 135 Series of 2002 – Code of Corporate GovernanceAssurance Engagement – a n engagement in which a practitioner expresses a conclusion designed to enhance the degree of confidence of the intended users other that the responsible party about the outcome of evaluation or measurement of a subject matter against criteria. â€Å"Subject matter information† – the outcome of the evaluation or measurement of a subject matter. Types of Assurance Engagement Objective Conclusion 1. Reasonable – risk reductionPositive to an acceptably low level 2. Limited – risk reduction to a level Negative that is acceptable in the circumstancesElements of an Assurance Engagements 1. A three-party relationship – practitioner – responsible party – intended users 2. An appropriate subject matter a) identifiable and capable of consistent evaluation or measurement against the identified criteria b) information about it can be subjected to procedures for gathering sufficient appropriate evidence to support a reasonable assurance or limited assurance conclusion 3. Suitable criteria – benchmarks used to evaluate or measure the subject matter, including where relevant, benchmarks for presentation and disclosure. . Sufficient appropriate evidence – an attitude of professional scepticism to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence 5. A written assurance report in the form appropriate to a reasonable assurance engagement or a limited assurance engagement – a conclusion that conveys the assurance obtained about the subject matter information Assertion-based engagement: * In terms of the responsible party’s assertion * Directly in terms of the subject matter and the criteria Non-assurance Engagements Engagements covered by ISRS/PSRS, such as agreed-upon procedures engagements and compilation of financial or other info * preparation of tax returns where no conclusion conveying assurance is expressed * consulting engagements, e. g. Management and Tax consulting Reports on Non-assurance Engagements â⠂¬â€œ clearly distinguishes that report from an assurance report Philippine Standards on Assurance Engagements – covers assurance engagements other than audits or reviews of historical financial infos. Acronyms: * AASC – Auditing and Assurance Standards Council * ASPC – Auditing Standards and Practice Council GAAS – Generally Accepted Auditing Standards * PICPA – Philippine Institute of Certified Public Accountants * ACPAPP – Association of CPAs in Public Practice * ISAEs – International Standards on Assurance Engagements * PCAOB – Public Companies Accounting Oversight Board * AAS – Auditing and Assurance Services * FRF – Financial Reporting Framework * PAS – Philippine Accounting Standards * PFRS – Philippine Financial Reporting Standards * PSA – Philippine Standards on Auditing * PRC – Professional Regulation Commission * BOA – Board of Accountancy Chapter 2 Objectives of Finan cial Statement Audit to enable the auditor to express an opinion whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework -Auditor is responsible for forming and expressing opinion on the FS and should determine whether such financial reporting framework adopted by management is acceptable -Management those charged with governance and has the primary responsibility of preparing and presenting these FS in accordance with frameworks and responsible for identifying the financial reporting framework to be usedComplete Set of FS: * Statement of Financial position * Statement of Comprehensive Income * Statement of Changes in Equity * Statement of Cash Flows * Notes General Principle of Audit 1. Ethical Requirements – Quality control 2. Audit in accordance with PSA 3. Professional scepticism – questioning mind 4. Objectives – reduce audit risk to an acceptable level Assurance Provided by Aud itor 1. Basis of evidence gathered (which include sampling) 2. Auditor provides reasonable assurance 3.Financial statements are free from material misstatements (materiality) * Sampling – used to gather evidence on financial statement amounts and disclosures * Reasonable Assurance – alludes to the concept of audit risk which is implicit in the audit function and implied in the scope paragraph of auditor’s report * Material misstatements – no guarantee that the FS are accurate. Auditor provides reasonable assurance concerning material misstatements and an opinion on fairness, in all material aspects.Collusions – when two or more individuals work together to effect misappropriation or concealment. Assertions – representations by managements, explicit or otherwise, that are embodied in the financial statements * Internal control assertions – an implied assertions by management that such internal control procedures are effective as to bot h their design and operation * Financial Statement assertions – management asserts that the financial statements, and by implication the financial statement items and underlying account balances and classes of transaction, are free of material misstatement.Level of Aggregation Category of FS Assertions per the AASC’s Glossary of Terms: 1. Existence 2. Rights and Obligations 3. Occurrence 4. Completeness 5. Valuation 6. Measurement 7. Presentation and disclosure Audit Objectives * to gather and evaluate audit evidence of sufficient quantity and appropriate quality in order to form an opinion on the financial statements prepared by management. Three Fundamental Concepts in Conducting an Audit 1. Materiality – degree of misstatement or omission . Audit risk – auditors may inappropriately express his opinion 3. Evidence – refers to the necessary information that an auditor gathers in order to form a credible opinion on the assertions Audit Report 1. Ti tle 2. Addressee 3. Introductory paragraph 4. Management’s responsibility 5. Auditor’s responsibility 6. Auditor’s opinion 7. Other reporting responsibilities 8. Auditor’s signature 9. Date of the auditor’s report 10. Auditor’s address Other Types of OpinionsQualified – expressed when the auditor concludes that an unqualified opinion cannot be expressed but that the effect of any disagreement with management, or limitation on scope is not so material and pervasive Adverse – issued when the effect of a disagreement is so material and pervasive to the FS that the auditor concludes that a qualification of the report is not adequate Disclaimer – issued when the possible effect of a limitation on scope is so material and pervasive to the FS

Marketing Strategies for Luxury Brands Essay

New products are continuously launched into the luxury perfume market each year. DKNY’s recent addition to the perfume market is DKNY Pure. As a competitor intending to introduce a similar product into the luxury fashion brand perfume market, consumer behaviour has important implications for the design of a successful marketing strategy. This paper will outline which key factors marketers should attempt to influence in the design of a marketing strategy to introduce a new luxury brand perfume to the market. Through the use of product positioning, identifying buying groups and the target market, extensive advertising and operant conditioning marketers can manipulate the consumer decision-making process together with internal and external influences leading to consumer purchase behaviour. From a marketing perspective luxury fashion brands are defined in by features such as exclusivity, premium prices, excellent quality, distinctiveness, image, status and other aspirational characteristics (Fionda & Moore, 2009). For many consumers the purchase of luxury fashion brand perfume is a high-involvement and emotional decision (Sadeghi & Tabrizi, 2011). These purchases involve the use of extended decision-making with an extensive search of internal and external information and a considerable evaluation of alternative products available (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011). An extensive advertising campaign should be used the major marketing strategy for the introduction of a new product in the luxury perfume market as it can be used to manipulate and influence consumer behaviour in a number of ways. Influencing the consumer decision-making process In order to influence the consumer decision-making process advertising can be used as external stimuli in order to trigger the first stage of the consumer decision making process; problem or need recognition. Advertising can influence consumer behaviour by affecting the consumer’s desired state or their existing state (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011), prompting the identification of perceived need or desire for a product. Strategic marketing campaigns such as preannouncements (for example through media releases or samples) can be used to influence consumer anticipation, attention and desire or perceived need prior to the launch of a new product such as a luxury perfume (Schatzel & Calantone, 2006). By understanding the motives which direct consumers to purchase products and the needs they are seeking to satisfy marketers can target their advertising more effectively (Kotler et al, 2007). For luxury brand perfume advertising can be used to highlight the emotional need of the consumer focussing on their â€Å"esteem needs† as described by Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Kotler et al, 2007; Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011). Emotional self-esteem needs can be effectively used in advertising luxury brand perfume to women by including messages and visuals which suggest sophistication, elegance, love and confidence. Feeling and emotion significantly shapes consumer intentions for perfume with consumers visualising, imagining, estimating and assessing the perceived feelings gained from purchasing and using the product (Sadeghi & Tabrizi, 2011). Perception Marketing efforts should focus on building customers perception of both the brand and the product. Perception is a significant internal factor in a consumers’ purchase decision for luxury brand perfume. The perception process involves processing information from exposure, attention and interpretation with meanings recorded as memory (Kotler et al 2007). Consumer perceptions can be manipulated through product positioning; in this case introducing a new perfume’s under the familiar luxury brand image will position it in the high-end perfume market creating a perception that it is a similar high-end product. Identifying the desired product position allows marketers to design strategies to develop the appropriate product image for that particular target market (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011). Perfumes are products that are comprised of both tangible and intangible characteristics designed to satisfy consumers. Perceptions of quality can be influenced by the tangible (intrinsic) characteristics of the product; for perfume this is the bottle and the package. Through the application of beautiful and clever product design and packaging marketers can manipulate consumer perception of the perfume and its image (Sadeghi & Tabrizi, 2011). Intangible (extrinsic) characteristics such as price, store image or brand image also serve to influence the consumer’s perception of quality (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011). Setting higher prices for the perfume consistent with the product position and target market (Fionda & Moore, 2009) and stocking the perfume in high-end department stores are strategies that can be employed to infer quality and influence consumer perceptions of status. Brand image and brand awareness Brand leveraging strategies can be employed to capitalise on the brand equity of a familiar luxury brand by giving the brand name to a new product (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011). By introducing a new perfume using an established luxury fashion brand (either as a product or line extension) marketers can increase consumer recognition and acceptance of new products (Wu & Lo, 2009) as well as making the most of the perceived intangible benefits associated with a positive brand image. A consumer’s positive perception of brand image of familiar luxury fashion brands has a significant effect on increasing purchase intentions of the products produced by those brands. The creation and usage of a strong brand image can be used by marketers to reduce uncertainty around product evaluation (or perceived purchase risk) whilst also increasing confidence in product quality (Sadeghi & Tabrizi, 2011). Consumers view brand as an important part of a product which adds perceived value to the product (Wu & Lo, 2009; Sadeghi & Tabrizi, 2011). Launching a perfume under an existing familiar brand with a positive brand image can generate competitive advantage by increasing consumer’s interest and attention and resulting positive evaluation of a product (Fionda & Moore, 2009). Further, consumers are likely to give greater attention to a familiar brand and to engage more effort in processing information about a product with a familiar brand name (Sadeghi & Tabrizi, 2011). Brand personality & celebrity endorsement Brand personality is a key factor in brand identity and is highly influential in the consumer decision making process as it relates to the desire to satisfy needs of self-esteem and belonging (Rajagopal, 2006). Consumers are motivated to purchase products from brands that reflect their own personality or that portrays personalities to which they aspire (Sirgy, 1982; Guthrie & Kim, 2009; Spry, Pappu & Cornwell, 2011). Celebrity endorsement is considered an effective strategy by marketers as a highly visible means of brand personality creation ((Rajagopal, 2006; Spry, Pappu & Cornwell, 2011). Endorsement by celebrities influences consumer behaviour through attracting increased attention, generating greater brand recall and recognition (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011; Spry, Pappu & Cornwell, 2011). Dean (1999, as cited in Spry, Pappu & Cornwell, 2011) further posits that celebrity endorsement can also influence a consumer’s perceptions of product quality and distinctiveness. The effectiveness of using a celebrity to endorse a product will be enhanced if there is congruence between the celebrity’s image, the product (and brand) personality and the self-concept of the target market (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011). Market research should be conducted to determine perceptions of chosen celebrities to ensure they are credible and have attributes that coincide with the target market’s needs and desires (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011; Spry, Pappu & Cornwell, 2011). For the luxury brand perfume market such attributes should be based on attractiveness and image. Learning & operant conditioning Consumers learn about products through the knowledge and experience gained from purchase and consumption (Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011). By understanding how consumers learn about products marketers can include information to assist and influence the consumer decision-making process. Operant conditioning is highly effective marketing strategy used to influence consumer behaviour particularly in high involvement purchases such as perfume (Peter & Nord, 1982; Quester, Pettigrew & Hawkins, 2011). Operant conditioning can shape positive reinforcement for consumer purchase intention (Amor & Guilbert, 2009). By trialling, using tester bottles and sample spray cards the product consumers are able to experience the perfume determine if they like the scent and if it smells good on their skin. Amor & Guilbert (2009) suggest that consumers are more likely to respond to new perfume samples than established ones. Marketers can provide free samples during related purchases to encourage product trial (Amor & Guilbert, 2009) which assists in capturing consumer attention and increasing product familiarity (Sadeghi & Tabrizi, 2011). Placing samples in high-end fashion magazines will also assist with familiarity as well as perception of quality. Using free samples as promotional tools may also assist marketers in developing a positive attitude toward the sampled perfume product as well as toward to the brand (Amor & Guilbert, 2009). External influences A consumer’s purchasing behaviour is also influenced by social factors. By identifying the roles in the buying process marketers can incorporate this information in the product design and advertising message decisions (Kotler et al 2007). For women’s perfume the same person might play several roles in the purchasing decision. The purchaser will often be the initiator of the purchase, the decider who ultimately makes the purchasing decision and the user or wearer of the perfume (Kotler et al). Products such as perfume that are complementary to self-image are occasionally purchased by consumers as gifts for themselves. Marketers can target the fulfilment of self-gifting motivations by interspersing perfumes with other products such as cosmetics so that sales-staff might promote combining purchases (Mick, Demoss & Faber, 1992). Males may also be purchasers of women’s perfume as gifts. Identifying this group in the buying process will enable targeted marketing through the development of gift packs around peak gift periods such as Christmas, and Valentines Day. As shown in the above discussion through the use of extensive advertising campaigns marketers can influence consumer purchase intention through stimulating emotional need or desire for the new perfume product as well as creating attention and awareness. Identifying and establishing the product position and the roles in the buying process will enable marketers to design and direct advertising at the desired target segments. The use of an established luxury brand to launch the product can influence consumer’s perceptions of quality and status of the brand and by association the perfume. Whilst credible celebrities can be used in advertising campaigns to create or support brand personality influencing attention, increasing brand recognition and product recall as well as further addressing consumer’s desire for fulfilment of self-concept needs. Finally operant conditioning through the provision on free samples and testers will be used to shape consumer learning about the new product by positive reinforcement, as well as capturing consumer attention and further increasing brand awareness. By understanding the relevant influences of consumer behaviour to the new product marketers can incorporate this theory in order to manipulate the buying intentions and purchase behaviours of consumers and create a successful marketing campaign.

Constructions of childhood and western ideologies of street children Literature review

Constructions of childhood and western ideologies of street children - Literature review Example Being a child on and of the streets may be different in one aspect, but long term results of the situation is equally harmful as it touches issues on child labor and children’s health. Childhood for Street Children Before identifying the possible consequences of being one of the street children, it is important to internalize the meaning of childhood as a phase and the expected characteristics of ‘normal’ children. According to Glasper and Richardson (2006, p. 298), childhood refers to the earlier phase of a person’s life under 18 years or before reaching young adulthood. Aside from underdeveloped physical qualities which are subject to change as they grow older, children are expected to love play as a usual activity. According to Ginsburg (2007, p. 183), play is important in childhood development because it allows children â€Å"to use their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and physical, cognitive, and emotional strength.† I n other words, play would develop a child’s cognitive skills and tolerance towards unexpected events such as losing in a game and being sport about it. In the United Kingdom, The Children’s Act of 1989 serves as guidelines in which the rights of the child are protected and sustained through the regulations promoted by the Parliament. The legislation encompassed the responsibilities of both the authorities and the parents or guardians. It is ensured that the act â€Å"protect[s] children from the harm which arises from family breakdown or abuse within the family,† however still respecting family lives and avoids â€Å"unnecessary intervention† (The Children's Act 1989. (c.1)). How ever the law protects the children, it is still indefinite if it can really protect their absolute population. Deprivation of basic needs would force underprivileged children to see the public street as a new place in which they can sustain themselves. The history of the lives of the street children can be traced from the nineteenth century onwards, since the growth of the industrial market. Especially in Britain's northern and midland counties, â€Å"child cruelty† was at its peak which gave inspiration to the formation of legislations protecting children’s rights (Shore, 2009, p. 563). The difficulty of their parents to provide them with proper nourishment encouraged these children to be on the streets to start looking for meager amount of money. Lemba (2002, p. 1) of the United Nation Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) reported that most street children are found in the â€Å"market, bars, shopping centers, bus stations, and parks.† Most of these children have minimal or no contact at all with their family. Such descriptions would lead to the definition of street children as: â€Å"children less than 18 years old, males or females, who spend all or most of their time on the streets who maintain minimal contact with their fami lies resulting to lack of supervision, protection or guidance which makes them vulnerable to hazards.† (Ali, n.d., p. 7) Wernham (2004) cited two categories of street children of which she called as children on the street and children of the street. The slight difference of the two phrases is significant in developing further the definition of

Britain's Conservative Movement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Britain's Conservative Movement - Essay Example Tories, such as Woolton and Churchill, captured this new worldview and offered the people of Britain a mixed economy based on pragmatism and built upon the progressive programs that labour had failed to deliver in the post war period. In 1945 the Conservative party faced a British electorate that perceived them as elitist and the party of the wealthy, which resulted in a disappointing loss at the polls in 1945. The Labour Manifesto of 1951 stated that, "The Tories are against a more equal society. They stand, as they have always stood, for privilege. In parliament they proposed cuts in taxation on large incomes and fought the profits tax" (Dale 1999, p.78). During this period, Conservatives sought to widen the appeal of the party. According to Lynch (1999, p.22), "Conservative claim to be the patriotic party had lost resonance given their association with the pre-war depression, the emergence of a popular patriotic discourse on the Left and a new period of consensus politics". This disconnection with the voting public would hamper the Conservative efforts during the next five years as they restructured the party, both philosophically and pragmatically. During the period of 1951-1964, the Conservative party was able to reap the rewards of the British public seeking to maintain a coherent national identity. David Hume and Henry Bolingbroke had written, in the 18th century, about the character of the British and that image endured for two hundred years of multi-national imperialism (Lynch 1999, p.3-20). However, by 1950 this image had weakened due to de-colonization, decentralization, and the growing integration of Europe. The empire and the monarchy no longer served as models for the British identity. Lynch (1999, p.21) contends that "a renewal of substate nationalism, immigration from the New Commonwealth and a Keynesian welfare state political settlement in which the Conservatives had lost their distinctive patriotic voice and had not developed a coherent post-imperial idea of Britishness". This loss of a national identity created an environment where the Conservatives could build a new identity in the image of the new Social Cons ervatism. This would further hold voters in the Conservative camp as they identified the party with the nationalism and patriotism of nationhood. This required conservative platforms to appeal to left wing social ideals, while supporting right wing capitalistic economic freedoms. The issues of decentralization, housing, health, and education became the property of the Conservative party, and by 1949 Churchill would assert that the Conservative party was a "broad, tolerant, progressive and hopeful prospect to the British people" and had become "..an overwhelming repudiation of the taint that we are a class party seeking to defend abuses or willing to tolerate the exploitation of the mass of people by vested interests, by monopolies or by bygone ideas" (as cited in James 1974, p.7863). The Conservative's rebranding as a socially progressive party shed the perception of an economically exclusive organization and helped attract many former labour supporters. Conservative policy following the Second World War was built upon the philosophy of the social reform policies of former Conservatives such as, "Thomas Carlyle, the Earl of Shaftesbury, William Wilberforce, and

Sex trafficking in the United states and if the women involved should Research Proposal

Sex trafficking in the United states and if the women involved should be prosecuted or considered victims - Research Proposal Example any of the women that are in the sex trafficking industry are targeted by pimps or recruiters because they seem to be in desperate situations such as being homeless or addicted to drugs, most of the women are suffering from extreme poverty. Once the women are brought into sex trafficking the recruiters have various methods of forcing them to continue. These can include physical violence, threats of violence to family members, threats of exposure and restricting the women’s freedom. (Raymond, Hughes. 7-8) The women that are forced into this life style are most often victims and should not be criminally prosecuted. Some of the women that are involved in sex trafficking do so willingly, mostly in the form of prostitution. One reason that many people oppose this form of sex trafficking is because they feel that it is morally wrong and the women are harmed by doing so (Dempsey. 18) Criminal prosecution of the women that willingly become prostitutes may deter others from becoming prostitutes, it would do nothing to stop unscrupulous people from forcing women into the

Mythology Essay No. 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mythology No. 2 - Essay Example Based on his genealogy, Theseus may be classified as a demigod. Aegeus, the King of Athens, unable to bear any children was later secretly married to Aethra and of this marriage, Theseus was born. Theseus was however raised by her mother and would later claim his birthright after going through various challenges and battles. Based on his actions, he may however be considered an epic or a journeying hero (Myths Encyclopedia â€Å"Go-Hi†). Epic or journeying heroes are heroes who are on quests and who go through various heroic battles and journeys. In fact, Greek mythology is riddled with heroes of this type, and Theseus is certainly one of them. He was on his way to claim his birthright when along the way he fought many battles; many of those he battled were actually considered ‘bad’ guys in the contemporary sense. He killed Sinis, the Pine Bender who tore his victims apart by tying them between two pine trees; he killed Sciron who had a habit of kicking his guests to sea while they were washing his feet; he also killed Cercyon, who was known for wrestling with strangers; and he battled many other foes on his way to Athens and these enemies were often known for their foul deeds towards other people (Britannica Encyclopedia â€Å"History and Society†). Theseus possessed many good points in his favor. First and foremost, in order to be a worthy king, or at the very least, a worthy heir to a kingdom, he knew that he had to prove himself worthy. He could have taken a safer route to Athens as advised by his grandfather Pittheus, however, he chose to use the more dangerous road (Godwin, p. 255). In the process, he left his mother’s and grandfather’s kingdom a boy, and he arrived in Athens a man. He gave himself enough battle experience and enough physical and mental cunning in order to claim his rightful place amidst the various threats and claims to his father’s throne. Upon

SUPPLY CHAIN PROCUREMENT IN THE US ARMY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SUPPLY CHAIN PROCUREMENT IN THE US ARMY - Essay Example ng, Budgeting and Execution (PPBE) Process, which is vested with proper planning of the supply system, program investigation, and implementation, and resource budgeting. This is the arm that is responsible for identifying the need for resources. The second division of the department of defense is the joint chief of staff integration that is vested with the responsibility of identifying gaps in the supply system and coming up with ways of filling those gaps. The last arm is the defense acquisition system which is vested with the procurement process of weapons and other resources that may be needed by the military. The military supply chain management of the DoD is composed of 7 components, which are suppliers, procurement, manufacturing, order management, transportation, warehousing and customers (soldiers). The success factors of the army are customer needs, information need, environmental concerns, deployment, mission, and interoperation. The primary aim in the military supply chain is to acquire the best machinery for combat, and at the same time working within the budgetary allocations. The process of the supply chain procurement of the army starts with the acquisition from supplier, then on the process, which can be warehousing or transportation and finally on the order management after order from the soldier (customer). The supply chain for the army may have a problem in implementing a customer-centric and process-centric supply chain in that the supply chain is very rigid and dependent on the regulations of army procurement (Weisgerber, 2014). There is no single step procurement process the way it is in the corporate and this means the procurement can also be long. The strategy of the US army is something that is subject to confidentiality because it touches on the security of the state. The suppliers are normally outsiders and are not privy to the confidential information, although they sign confidentiality agreements. It is, therefore, hard to align the

Modern Risk Analysis Based on PRA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Modern Risk Analysis Based on PRA - Essay Example This risk assessment leads to an output of ranging risks prior to the experiences of the receptors. Proper probabilistic risk assessments require adequate description of the input parameters. For this to happen, it requires that distributional data be available and further be adequate in describing the already identified input parameters. PRA purely employs probability and probability distributions in the characteristic analysis. Probability denotes the chances of occurrence of an uncertain phenomenon. The uncertainty constitutes occurrence of risk. Through PRA, risk assessments can be carried out and the levels of risk therein identified. Use of probability in the assessments of risk can be used in the understanding, quantifying and management of risk. Such a process can further be analysed in relation to the limitations of quantifying risk using probability. Reasons why probability is chosen as opposed to other measures of uncertainty Probability quantifies the description of level s of risk, characterized by the aspect of uncertainty or variability associated with risk estimates. Risk therefore becomes comprehensively characterized by using probability, which would not be the case when point estimate measure of risk is used (UKOOA, 2006, pg. 134). This feature therefore makes probability a better measure of risk than the point estimate method. Quantitative analysis of risk allows for diverse treatment of uncertainty variables used in the determination of underlying risks prior to the probability of occurrence of the identified risks. Risk management requires the use of flexible tools of analysis as well as availability of vast information in regard to what is being accounted for. In this regard, probability becomes the best measure of uncertainty. Uncertainty constitutes risks, and it is the risks that risk managers ought to address. Probability allows for flexibility in the analysis and treatment of variables in the probability equation (U.S. Environmental P rotection Agency, 2005, pg. 78-79). Following this, a large volume of information can be derived, thereby allowing risk managers to make choices among alternatives. Other measures of uncertainty do not provide for flexibility and variant information, making risk managers fixed to the choices they make or to the scope that they can manage risks using such measures as a baseline. Managers need to assess and evaluate high-end risks, and the best gateway to succeeding in that is using probability in measuring levels of risk. Limitations of quantitative approach to risk The quantitative approach to risk is time consuming. It is procedural and treatment and analysis of variables require adequate time. Step by step consideration of variables is necessary in order to ensure that each and every aspect that constitutes risks is identified and accounted for (Stern and Fineberg, 1996, pg. 157). This process is characterized by huge requirement of resources. Adequate resources need to be pulled into place. Finances are required at every step of the quantification process. Gathering data and information is expensive. The management should be aware of these requirements before such an approach to risk is adopted. In order to come to a critical and fundamental understanding of the risks through the quantification approach all required information should first be in place. Data collection, cleaning, editing, analysis and reporting require that enough resources be allocated for the purposes.

How intercountry differences affect Human Resource Management Research Paper

How intercountry differences affect Human Resource Management - Research Paper Example Thus, for them the human resource should be given higher priority in order for the entire business operation to succeed. In the case of handling global human resources for those international companies, challenges are always at hand. This is due to the fact that each country has different business environment which includes differences in cultural, political, social, economic, technological aspects and more (Rao par. 2-9). In the following section, the proponent tries to include intercountry differences for working hours, holidays, recruiting, selection, appraising, training, minimum wage and compensation. These differences point out how they affect Human Resource Management in detail. Working hours The other part of the globe right at this moment is plunging into deep sleep while the other side is widely awake and is responding in unison to the busy schedule of the day. In the case of global companies such as call centers, they have companies instituted right at the Pacific Rim or a t the other side of the world. Working hours therefore should differ between countries especially those with 12-hours differences. This means that employees in Asia working in a call center should be awake all night long when it is daytime in the US, Europe or in other parts of the world. This created an impact among global companies in their HR management and one of the best options that they should do is to motivate or encourage employees to work for them considering the nature and required working hours of the offered jobs. Holidays Mostly, international companies adhere to the required holiday in a country and this means they have to inform their international counterparts so as to ensure continuity of their business operation without creating any unnecessary interruptions. For this reason, an international organization is influenced by the prevailing political and cultural system in a certain country. Recruiting Recruiting activity may also differ from each country considering the nature of prevailing political, cultural and social background and orientation of an individual. An international company should therefore consider following the policies and procedures implemented in a certain country regarding with the right recruiting activity. Part of this is to remarkably explain to job applicants the nature of the jobs they are applying for and the specific tasks expected of them to perform. Selection In the selection process, an international company needs to be transparent about the required qualification of an employee they are looking for in a certain job so as to eliminate discrimination in the process. Discrimination has to be essentially eliminated especially in countries that are giving too much value on their cultural orientation. This means that an international company needs to be sensitive in dealing with cultural background of an employee especially in the selection process. Appraising The American standard may differ from that of those countr ies in Asia and in other countries. This means that an international company coming from the United States may have significant influence from its country and will tend to impose it to its counterparts in other countries. However, appraising should be clearly explained to each employee so as to prevent potential thought about biases and partiality. This is to ensure that each employee should be able to agree with their level of

ECG Compliance Officer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

ECG Compliance Officer - Essay Example According to the paper leaders also tend to think outwards on how their policies and ideas impact the society in the sense perspective. Managers on the other hand focus on things. For example, the major concern of a retail manager is whether the merchandise is moving and not about the people doing the work. They also have a myopic view of attaining the targets set and do not have the bigger picture. In terms of goal setting, leadership entails the articulation of the organization’s vision. The purpose of leaders is to give their followers a reason to do something and show the followers the way to the future. Essentially, leader sees the bigger picture and rallies the followers in an effort to attain it. The role of a manager is to execute plans and strive to improve the present situation in the organization. Simply put, a manager is focused on the present situation and sees the tree rather than the forest. The type of governance that is implemented also shows remarkable differ ences between leaders and managers. A manager uses authority to govern the people that he/she manages. They use their position to get things done. Also, managers avoid conflicts in their organization since they feel conflicts threaten their power. In handling issues, a manager is bound to act in a responsible manner. On the contrary, leaders use influence to govern people. In fact, leaders do not need a title in order to execute their plans. Leaders use conflicts to create tighter bonds with their followers and move forward in unison. When matters of concern arise, a leader acts decisively to solve the issue immediately with the information available. Employee relations are a pointer to whether a person is a leader or a manager. Managers aim to control the staff that they are in charge of and consider them their subordinates. As previously indicated, managers are title oriented and thus endeavor exercise authority at all times. Managers tend to specialize in directing and coordinati ng the people they are in charge of. This paper highlights that the hallmark of leadership is empowering people to do their work. Leaders recognize their followers as colleagues and they commit to developing relationships of mutual respect and trust with them. The other unique role of leadership is to create change. Leaders are tasked with ushering people they lead into new realms of uncharted territories. To achieve this, leaders learn to do the right things as the world of change is full of uncertainties. Also, leaders serve the people they lead by putting the interests of the followers ahead of theirs. Managers run their operations by perfecting the skill of managing change. Their role is to do the right the right things after they have been given a brief. The managers endeavor to serve the wishes of their superiors at all times to ensure that their bosses are happy and satisfied at whatever costs . The organization is about to go public through an Initial Public Offering (IPO) a nd acquire a new company which will lead to the creation of a new department.  

Comparing The Yellow Wallpaper with Hop Frog Essay Example for Free

Comparing The Yellow Wallpaper with Hop Frog Essay The Yellow Wallpaper and Hop Frog were both written at a time of social turbulence and revolution. Poe wrote Hop Frog twelve years prior to the American civil war, so it is fitting that many of the ideas in the story carry a strong anti-slavery message. Similarly, The Yellow Wallpaper was written in 1892 just before the climax of equal-rights for women. Gillmans The Yellow Wallpaper is one of the early feminist texts in which her writing criticises the position that women were oppressed into and the ignorance of society as a whole. Both Gillman and Poe attack fiercely these ideas that were both upheld and willingly accepted by the majority of society. These two settings immediately portray the two central characters, a woman and a slave, as two of an unheard minority, who were subjected to an unjust, patriarchal world. One of the main similarities between Hop Frog and The Yellow Wallpaper is the atmosphere of each of the stories. Both are horror stories are very dark, and have a horror genre, however Hop Frog is also similar to a fairy tale in that it is quite unbelievable, and where Hop Frogs surroundings are fantasy, the narrators surroundings are quite real. Despite their differences, both of the storys surroundings and atmosphere are symbolic of the way the central character is feeling or being treated. For example, gluttony and corruption of the king and his ministers surround Hop Frog and Poes darkly vivid descriptions of these reflect the mood of Hop-Frog. The oily ministers and a corpulent king sound simply grotesque and fill the reader with a sort of stomach churning unease and tension at the treatment of Hop Frog. The corruptness and gluttony is hugely significant as it shows us the danger and easiness of becoming influenced and eventually corrupted by greed and alcohol. The narrator of The Yellow Wallpaper has instead a room. It is describes as having barred widows and a nailed down bed, which give the impression of a prison rather than a place to become well again in. In fact the room actually does become a prison for the narrator, becoming more and more horrible as the story progresses. By the repetitive use of the word, joke in the first paragraph Poe emphasises the discomfort of Hop Frog as well as achieving a hugely tense atmosphere. This makes the reader, who realises that this seemingly jovial and harmless behaviour of the king and his courtiers is in fact, a lot more damaging and sinister, feel the tension and discomfort that Hop Frog endures. Like Hop Frog, The Yellow Wallpaper also has a tense atmosphere achieved by the speeded up pace of the story and the very short sentences, which flit from one idea to another. These short sentences show the alertness of the narrators mind as well as her increasing madness as she is left with no stimulation other than her own thoughts. As the story progresses the narrators madness grows and consequently her surroundings become more and more an extension of her own nightmarish imagination, eventually becoming as fantastical as Hop Frogs. Throughout the story, the wallpaper in the room is a metaphor for the narrators illness and as her insanity grows, the wallpaper becomes more and more hideous. At the beginning of the story, it is described as horrible wallpaper. Her initial rejection of the wallpaper, shown when the narrator says; I dont like our room and asks John Let us go downstairs, is indicative of her want to get better and her rejection of insanity. The wallpaper is described as having a sickly sulphur tint, representing her illness, and appears to grow, fungus and toadstools suggests that her illness is growing, whilst Budding and sprouting suggest the continuity of this growth. Despite the fact that the images of the wallpaper worsen as time goes on, the narrator quickly becomes obsessed by it, spending hours studying it. The narrator describes how It dwells on my mind so. Eventually, the narrator becomes so mad, that it is as if she is schizophrenic. She begins to see herself in the wallpaper as a woman, stooping down and creeping behind the pattern. As time progresses, the faint woman becomes clearer and stronger as the narrator becomes weaker. This shows her sane self, losing the battle to her insane self. Despite the awful surroundings, outside of her barred windows lies the garden. In contrast to the wallpaper, the garden represents the narrators hope of freedom. The garden is described as delicious and where everything in the wallpaper is bad and infectious, everything in the garden is good and healing. However the narrator is locked away with her illness and is unable to reach the garden, which holds the key to her freedom, How I wish he [John] would let me go she tells us. This creates dramatic irony, as everyone knows what the narrator needs, including the narrator herself, except the narrat ors own husband John. Just as the wallpaper and the narrators madness increase as the story progresses, the behavior of the king towards Hop Frog worsens. This is shown by Poes descriptions of the king, starting as our king, turning into a tyrant and becoming finally a monster. By describing the king in this way, the reader is not only made to feel sympathy for Hop Frog by portraying him as a powerless victim of this cruel abuse, but also make us forgive his final act of revenge, which is in fact utterly terrible. The King and his ministers are abusive and exploitative towards Hop Frog and Trippetta. Poe illustrates this particularly by the reference to alcohol, The king takes advantage of Hop Frogs intolerance to wine it excited the poor cripple almost to madness and sadistically he took pleasure in forcing the cripple to drink. Poe describes how Hop Frog was forced to be merry as it was the poor dwarfs birthday and he is made to obey the command to drink to absent friends, which forced tears to his eyes. This is incredibly ironic, as Hop Frog is not with his friend because he is a slave in the court of the king. In the yellow wallpaper, the narrators monster is her own husband, John, a physician. He ignorantly suffocates his wife, leaving her with no option but to escape into her own madness. He threatens her with Weir Mitchell who was renowned for treating women with this temporary nervousness. The narrator describes how he is like john and my brother, only more so, showing her wish not to be sent to him. John also keeps the narrator away from human contact, starving her of any stimulation or interaction. Despite his obvious love for her he treats her like a possession, this is shown when he fails to regard her as a human being by addressing her as she as if she isnt even there. This also symbolises the fact that he has slowly removed her identity. John regards his wife with little more intelligence than a child, shown by his constantly patronising tone. He calls her little goose and little girl as well as remarking bless her as if she is little older than five. John also shows himself to be really rather selfish when he implores her get well for me. Despite everything, we have to believe that John really does love his wife and wants to help her. But it is through John that Gillman makes a very poignant observation of the way in which society treats women, pointing out the real danger of ignorance. The Narrator in The Yellow wallpaper is portrayed as an extremely bright creative woman, despite the way John regards her. She expresses her thoughts and releases some of the energy that she is so full of through writing. However John forbids that she should write, the narrator tells us I am absolutely forbidden to work. The narrator herself tells us herself that excitement and change would do me good. Instead of excitement and change the narrator is confined to her bed and made to sleep most of the day I lie down ever so much now, John thinks its good for me. However, it is not good for her and the narrator describes how I dont sleep much at night, showing the disturbance of her mind. This results in the narrator having an enormous amount of pent up energy which, when combined with her inability to express herself creates enormous tension in the story. As the narrator searches frantically for an outlet for her imagination she inevitably becomes mad seeking the much-needed stimulation within the wallpaper. The narrators inability to express herself can be compared with Hop Frogs loss of control to the king when he is forced to drink. Hop Frog is described as being driven to madness by the wine, and madness Poe reminds us is no comfortable feeling. In both stories the position of women is severely criticized. In Hop Frog, Trippettas position as both a slave and a woman is exploited. Her grace and exquisite beauty is described as being universally admired. Poe describes how she was admired and petted suggesting the shocking abuse she is subject to. Poe describes how the king threw the entire contents of the goblet in her face, suggesting the complete humiliation that she suffered. In The Yellow Wallpaper, we are introduced to Jennie who is the sister of John. She is described as a perfect and enthusiastic housekeeper. Typically of a nineteenth century Lady, Jennie is subservient accepting her position willingly and gratefully. Gillman describes how she hopes for no better profession. Jennie represents the women of society who have grown to accept and are either to weak or to scared to rebel against a life that is no better than that of a slaves. The narrators position as a woman is very similar to Hop Frogs. She is treated as a possession by her husband John and is seen to have no real opinions or views. She describes how the heads that she sees are strangle[d] by the wallpaper, turns them up side down and turns their eyes white. This is very much inactive of the way both she and the other women of society feel suffocated and oppressed by their position. Both stories are written in first person narrative, which makes them a lot more personal. Hop Frog is told by an anonymous Narrator, an onlooker, whilst The Yellow Wallpaper is written like a diary with the narrator, a woman suffering from post-natal depression being the central character. Semi-Autobiographical, the story is loosely based on Perkins own experiences. The narrator in The Yellow Wallpaper remains nameless meaning that the narrator could be any woman in society. It is also a metaphor for the identity that has been lost through her illness and the ignorance of her husband, John. Both the characters are the victims of ignorance. The Yellow Wallpaper shows the ignorance of society about post-natal depression and the fact that no one is prepared to accept what the narrator is suffering from. Her case is not serious we are told. The result of this ignorance is that the narrators condition is not cured but instead made worse. She is taken for a rest cure and deprived of interaction with people and stimulation. Her creativity is crushed when she is forbidden to write. This inability to express herself, had dire consequences; instead of recovering she instead she begins to descend further and further into her own madness. The wallpaper in her room, which gradually becomes more and more disturbing as her madness increases, shows this. This can be compared to Hop Frog who because of his difference in appearance is treated appallingly. The central characters of each story are portrayed as prisoners the narrator in The Yellow Wallpaper is portrayed as a prisoner, trapped by her social position; as a woman, by her mental illness and by her own husband. Through her story, Gillman attacks an extremely patriarchal society. She criticises the lack of respect for women and shows her anger towards the inability of women to escape from the position they are oppressed to. The room in which the narrator is put in, in order to rest and recover from her illness is very much symbolic of her imprisonment. It is described as having barred windows and the bedstead as iron, heavy and nailed to the ground representing her being tied down. The fact that the room was a nursery first, is very ironic; Firstly because she has no contact with her own baby and secondly because she has literally been reduced to the position of a child. Similarly, Hop Frog and his fiend Trippetta are salves, whom Poe tells us, were forcibly carried off from their barbarous region and sent, as presents to the king. This is reminiscent of the situation of many black slaves who were taken from Africa to the west at this time, in order to further the endeavours of rich, greedy men at as low a cost a possible. The reality of what faced them ahead was a harsh, cruel life of constant work with no freedom or rights as a human being. However, it is surely wrong that one person should have freedom whilst another is an enslaved possession because they are different. This injustice is shown in the story by the Kings inability to accept Hop Frog as a person, in appearance he is different and so is treated as an object, a possession. Poe describes him as a monkey and a squirrel and suggest that Hop Frog is begging for food crumbs from the royal table. The result this is that Hop Frog is shown to be like a begging animal which serves to ease the K ings conscience at mocking Hop Frog, if he is not a person then he does not have feelings. Both Hop Frog and Trippetta are dwarfed and Hop Frog is a cripple and Walks with an interjectional gait, which comes across as quite funny when it is further described as somewhere between a leap and a wriggle. Despite this Hop Frogs value was trebled in the eyes of the king and the king, who live only for joking exploits Hop Frogs physical disabilities. It is therefor ironic that Hop Frog becomes the court fool which is a metaphor for the fact that he is laughed at by the King. The idea of Hop Frog being mocked for the way he walks is shocking and through this Poe shows the unease of society at the treatment of the slaves. The Kings immoral behaviour mirrors that of the slave traders in America and Europe. Hop Frogs physical disability can be compared to the narrators madness. The endings of each story are hugely significant and it is perhaps through the ending that we see the characters in their true light. Throughout The Yellow Wallpaper the narrator has drifted in and out of her sane mind, she tells us once I always lock the door before I creep. Up until this point the narrator has not accepted that it is herself who is creeping, instead putting it down to the woman. But by the end, she is telling us how she is creeping round and round and round the room. Both a rope and an axe are mentioned, and John faints when he sees the destruction of the room and of his wife. It is quite possible that either of them are dead, however Gillman leaves the ending ambiguous. As well as amplifying the uncertainty of the woman, this could also be down to the fact that Gillman, despite her feminist views, was still a woman in the nineteenth century. She did she want to demonize her character by making her murder her husband no could she afford to openly state that the husband was literally overpowered by his wife. Gillman would not want to upset her feminist audience either, who would be outraged if the narrator killed herself due to the fact that she is such a powerful symbol of a woman wanting to rebel against her oppression. For her to commit suicide would dishearten a lot of these women as it would look as if suicide was the only way out. It seems as if this ending was right for the character who despite becoming insane, is finally happy and tells us with utter satisfaction I got out. Whatever the reason for this ending, there is no doubt that despite the fact that this ending is truly horrific it also comes with a degree of relief. For with the narrators madness comes freedom, and more importantly, the woman finds her identity. Ironically this is not her former self, who is finally named as Jane, but another person; her ins anity. Whilst The Yellow Wallpaper remains ambiguous, the ending of Hop frog is completely literal. Because eof the fact that Poe is a man, he can afford to take more liberties that perhaps Gillman was unable to take. He can openly humiliate and torture the king and the court, who represent the corrupt monarchy; an important part of society, and appear to get away with this. Hop Frog is portrayed as demonic and evil. He achieves his freedom by brutally killing the King and his ministers. Under the guise of the stupid fool he tricks the king and his ministers into thinking that they are dressing up and covers them in tar and flax. The fact that Poe uses tar and Flax is of great significance as it is symbolic of humiliation and punishment throughout history. Hop Frog then chained them together to become the eight chained orangutans. Hop frog shows himself to be very intelligent when, at the dwarfs suggestion, the keys had been deposited with him, in contrast with the stupidity of the King. Po e describes how the they are humiliated when the chains cause them to fall and stumble, The King and his Ministers have gone form mocking Hop Frog to being mocked themselves Hop Frog then suspends them from the ceiling at the ball and burns them alive. The fact that throughout the story Hop Frog never had the presence that the evil King had means that we would not immediately suspect Hop frog. When the grating noise was first introduced, the reader did not think that it could be Hop Frog. However at the end when Hop Frog is perched on the rope with the burning king and ministers below him the grating noise came form the fang like teeth of the dwarf, who ground and gnashed them as he foamed at the mouth. This is an insane a picture as that of the narrator. Hop frog rising up against the king is a complete reversal of roles, the oppressed has become the oppressor. However how is it possible that Poe can get away with this ending without his central character looking like the vengeful murder that he has become? It is perhaps because all-thorough the story, the treatment of Hop Frog as well as his situation has been described as Horrendous, horrific and brutal, evoking incredible sympathy in the reader. As if this isnt reason enough, Poe threw in the added ploy of alcohol, which appears to demonize Hop Frog. Therefor when Hop Frog commits this terrible act, he is immediately forgiven whilst we all revel in the torture that the king and his ministers now incur. In the eyes of the reader justice has been done. Perhaps through his ending, Poe is forecasting what is to come, when the black slaves will rise up against their own white oppressors. It is therefor interesting that n order to truly punish and humiliate them, Hop Frog turns them first black. Like Gillman, Poe does not want to demonize the female character, leaving the question of Trippettas involvement up to the reader to answer.

The ICT Project Essay Example for Free

The ICT Project Essay Introduction: I have been given a task to find out a real end user for my project who is currently having problems with paper. I am brainstorming different types of techniques to improve the efficiency and quality of the paper based problem. I have found an end user for my project; it is one of my teachers in Sir John Cass, Mr Shah who is a key skills ICT teacher. His currently having a paper problem he needs to input details of individual student of their term report, his currently using a pen and a paper to input all the details such as the whole terms attendance, predicted grades etc. The type of software I will be using is Spreadsheet because it is one of the criteria in my project. Spreadsheet is an application used to input data into table graphs. This application will require basic computer (including input devices) and the spreadsheet application with a connected computer per unit. The way in which the spreadsheet will be constructed is a big factor when deciding its effectiveness and speed of input for example I do not want to overcomplicate the system. I will be using well known software called Microsoft Excel, which is ideal for the creation of tables and graphs as stated earlier. I in this case will be easy to use interface. Although the end user is not adept to the use of ICT I will be creating the system for a user with no ICT skills as this in a sense will speed up the input process further. Why not continue the old methods of registry and late entries: 1. All the work is written down so there are human errors such as spelling and when something like this is to happen you have to start over because on a formal piece of information there cannot be mistakes this can be time consuming. 2. Accuracy will be greatly increased with the user friendly interface which in addition to accuracy increases efficiency. 3. You may not able to make immediate electronic copies of information tables. 4. The special features available with Excel (spreadsheet) are no longer an option such as, immediate calculation, from entry, graphs and charts, etc. 5. Most of the surnames and first names are the same it can be difficult to find phone details, however with this system you can have this information automatically loaded with the name entry. Current System Mr Shah teaches year 7 to year 11 students for Key Skills ICT, the problems his currently facing is filling in individuals students records such as their term report, attendance record, working grade, everything on paper as it is a bit time consuming to find all the records of each students when filling in their report. Mr Shah is a very busy man as he is also the head of year of ICT key skills. The current system involves Mr Shah marking grades by using a pen and filling in term reports by manually and keeping records of individual students which involves writing everything on paper. Therefore I have stepped in to help him with his problems. I will be mainly focusing on year 11 as it is important for them because their about to face their exams. Problems with Current System: By reviewing Mr Shahs problem I have found out what the current common mistakes happened to be, they are: * The current system is inaccurate and most of the time he makes mistakes. For example, when she is working out percentage and grades for each student, she often makes calculation errors. * It is very time consuming, especially the calculation of percentages attained in marked worked and grades obtained overall. * As the names of students are not in order he finds it difficult to find the student to record a mark. * The report could easily get lost. * Also writing in individual names several times, which is time consuming. Interviewed Questions What is your position at this school? What type of system do you use for your mark tracks? What method do you use to mark your student work? What problems are you facing with your current system? How would you want your current system to be improved? What do you think is the major failings in your current system? Have you ever used a computer for tracking marks? Can you give me any samples of your current system? Is there a CD ROM drive in your computer? Do you have a printer? How certain are you when using computers? How certain are you when using Excel? What features and functions are you aware of in Excel? Do you keep all your records? Do you have any additional questions? End User Requirement Statement of user requirements Mr Shah feels a computerized system will solve some of her current problems as she thinks she has some knowledge about Excel. She feels I will be able to create an effective, fast, and easy to use automated system to calculate her students marks for her, which will enable her to solve her problem. They are the following things she expects to get from a computerized system. Input * She wants the new system to enable her to make management decisions that she uses to support student, which need help, whether parents need contacting, whether other action is required e.g. Detention. * The system should automatically calculate the percentage and grades of each student. This system will therefore make her work more accurate and easy to use. * Mr Shah wants the new system to be able to enter student personal details, e.g. DOB, tutor group, surname, etc. * She wants the new system to be able to edit student personal details. Also she wants the system to able to delete student personal details if a student moves form her teaching group. Output * Mr Shah the new system to use colour coding when displaying grades of each student, e.g. Green for A*, Blue for A etc. * Mr Shah would like a report facility where she can select a student from a list and the report will show the students name, gender, from group, overall percentages mark, grade obtained and an automatic comment on progress. * The system should be able to produce chart, which will analysis student overall performance and also compare girls and boys performance. Processing * The system will put the names of student in alphabetical order. * Mr Shah wants the new system to automatically convert numerical marks to percentages. Storage * Mr Shah wants the new system to be able to store 30 students personal detail and also store results for up to 70 tests. * Finally, the new system should not be used by anyone else except Mr Shah, I will make sure the system is safe and I will make sure it has a security code. Backup protocols are a necessity in the event that the master copy is lost or destroyed. Backup up will be provided by an external hard drive, and the system will be backed up periodically, i.e. every week, or in special circumstances, for example, there is a significant in take of data into the system. Furthermore, the backup copy will be stored of site, so that if theres a natural disaster affecting the main site, the backup copy will remain. Plus, this method of backup can be described as differential backup, which practices a cumulative backup of changes from the last full backup , allowing a full system restore based upon the last full backup. Due to the non existent computer skills of the employees, an introduction into the use of computers is necessary. To accompany the basic skills they will acquire, I will need to develop a user manual which will provide detailed instructions in performing various tasks in the system as well as maintaining it, which is vital to its integrity and reliability. However, Victor has advised me to provide a manual of minimal size and contents in order to avoid confusion and enable the employees to read it swiftly, so they can get on with the job as soon as possible. Source Documents The source document that I have provided is a copy of marks book that Mr Shah uses to record her student marks. As you can see there is a lot of data to be inputted by hand. This is one of the problems that Mr Shah has. The calculations of total mark and overall have to make using calculator, which is time consuming. Objectives of the new system * The new system will perform the following tasks: * It should be able to identify students with poor performance by using a visual alert. * Ability to edit incorrect mark, so whenever Ms Gammon make an accidental mistake, she will have the ability to correct it. * The system should be able to produce average performance percentage of each student for her class. * It should have the ability to Edit and Delete students details if required, thorough the use of data forms. * Easy and clear to use. * It should automatically calculate percentages and grades from the inputted a student marks and maximum mark available for each test. * Cell, formulae protected to prevent accidental deletion. * It should automatically work out a students grade, based on overall percentage for all tests taken. * It should be able to generate an automated report for students showing student performance. * Password (security) on file access. * It should automatically colour code student grades. User Skill Level Mr Shah has used Microsoft Excel but does not use it to calculate percentage, and grades of her marks. She is an average user, which means she does not understand most of the advanced features. Such as Vlookup, IF Statement, Macros, etc. Project Constraints Mr Shah uses school standard PC that I will be using to calculate percentages and grades for the new system. It has a four processor, which has 512 MB of RAM and 30 GB hard disk. It has Microsoft software including the excel 2000. Mr Shah Pc has CD Rom, USB and floppy drive, which are also connected to school network. This will make my work to be easy when loading the new system onto her computer because I can store it on the CD or floppy disk and transfer the system. Ms Gammon has printer in her office, which will be used to print out reports of student performance Performance Criteria These are the performance criteria that are going to be used in the new system that Mr Shah asked for: * MR Shah will be able to correct mistakes that she might make during marking; this will make the system to be more neatly presented and pleasant. * It should be able to add and delete students if required. * The system will generate automated reports of each student by click of a button showing their performance that can be sent to parent. * It will be easy and clear to use. * The new system will produce an average performance percentage for each student. And also it will automatically convert numerical marks to percentages. * It should have protection to prevent accidental deletion of important formulae, numbers, table, chart and text. All the sheet and cells in the system must be protected with security to prevent these. * Graph and charts should be generated quickly and easily to compare boys and girls performance, All student and by form. * The new system will not take more than 4seconds to view performance and grades for each student. * The system will generate automated colour coding when displaying grades of each student. * The system will store 40 student personal details, and also store results for up to 50 tests. * Mr Shah will be able to select student from a list and the report will show the students name, gender, overall percentage mark, grade obtained and an automatic comment on progress. Design Choice of Software I think that Microsoft Excel is the best option of software because it has got many features such as: * It has advanced functionality such as pivot table, sort, forms, Vlookup, average, and write protection. This will make things more automated for the user. * Pivot: this will hold table for charts. This will not need to be seen by the user. When they select the chart that they require on the student summary sheet, the pivot table on the sheet will change to represent that choice. It will also used to summaries archive data for use in charts showing: 1. By gender 2. Form * Data entry form will be able to edit and delete student records. * Conditional formatting will allow automatic shading of cells to give visual message for highlighting grade attained and also table displaying student grades. * Macros can be used to perform complex tasks at the press of a single button. * It can perform complex calculation such as working out the grade for each student. * User Forms for controlling actions with macros using buttons. * Chart /Graph: can be used to display output of information such as averages, predicted grades etc. * The user wants the system to be as error-free as possible. Excels Validation facility will allow me to set up range validation to control data input when entering student personal details, overall mark etc. * Protections of cell so that user cannot accidentally delete information. Statement of Input, Processing Output requirement The input would be: Personal Details: First name Surname Gender Date of Birth Form Roll number Student marks: Assignment marks Maximum /minimum mark Grade Boundaries The Processing would be: Calculating the grades through a Vlookup to the grade boundaries table. Sorting, grouping and summarizing data with a pivot table. Calculate the average of total marks Using Vlookup work out a grade for the average. The output would be: Pivot Chart/Graph showing comparisons between gender, form-by-form and overall year group achievement. Give students their grades using report card. Table displaying student grades. Creating report for using student with performance. School letter, which would be sent out to parent using conditional formatting to highlighting grade attained. Data Set Because of Data Production Act, I cannot be able to use the real detail of Mr Shah Students. For that reason, I will create my own data set of example student details, which I will work with.

Organizational Culture And Leadership Styles Education Essay

Organizational Culture And Leadership Styles Education Essay Human learning in the 21st century will be as different from human learning in the 20th century as the micro-chip and neural networks are from the valve. (Lepani,1994, p. 3). In this century the scope and pace of change seem to be accelerating in all areas of human existence. We have to move with it or ahead of it if we are not to be left behind. Academic institutions are feeling this tidal wave of change in ways that have left many educators consciously or otherwise confused, exhausted and disillusioned. (Deal, 1990, p.131) Change can be seen as evolutionary and dynamic with an emphasis on continuous learning and adaptation (Dixon, 1994; Fullan, 1991; Fullan and Miles, 1992). The challenge for academic institutions is to adopt change strategies that provide internal stability while moving ahead. This challenge may be able to be met in education and elsewhere by focusing on a change strategy where learning comes to be seen as the single most important resource for organizational re newal in the postmodern age (Hargreaves, 1995). The nations that lead the world into the next century will be those who can shift from being knowledge transformational bodies to those that will have the capacity to possess, renew and utilize knowledge successfully. The major issue that confronts educators is whether or not we can transform education and create academic institutions that can successfully prepare our nations students for life. This process calls for leadership at all levels, a good school culture and personal commitment of those who are responsible for these institutions. They must take the time to seriously consider the kinds of changes that are needed. They have to address the needs of students and teachers and then a fundamental transformation of education could happen. There are many routes for organizational development through change, which can be used to improve an organizations quality. Learning organization models provide one administrative method that can be used to provide direction for organizational achievement for both public and private organizations (Makasarnont, 1997). As Hoy and Miskel (2001) state, academic institutions are service organizations that are committed to teaching and learning. The academic institutions functions as a learning organization in order to continue to improve performance and build capacity to manage change (Corcoran and Goertz, 1995) in an environment where academic institutions are becoming increasingly borderless. Conceptualizing academic institutions as learning organizations is appropriate, given the new challenges of a fast-changing world. To be relevant in a knowledge society, new skills, capabilities and knowledge are required. The focus of each academic institution should therefore fall on the enhancement of individual commitments to continuous learning by creation of an enabling enterpreutionial culture and transformational leaders for the development and growth of academic institutions as Learning Organizations. Teachers have to be awake to these changes and must try to improve their skills all the time. They cannot stop their learning simply because they have graduated from school or the university and have been employed; if they would like to be successful, they must grow. They have to keep on learning from their experiences, environment, or their organization. As Lassey (1998) shows successful people are people who learn. Without learning, there is no improvement; and without improv ement the institutions stagnate. The institutions should be places where participants continually expand their capacities to create and to achieve. If academic institutions are to be effective learning organizations, they must find ways to create structures that continuously support teaching and learning and enhance organizational adaptation. Therefore the learning organization is the important thing that an administrator has to create in her/his school in order to give leaders, teachers and students an opportunity for learning continuously, based on the belief that the more people learn, the better they can perform when they go on in life. Need for the Study Many academic institutions are struggling to meet the requirements for academic performance. In this study academic institutions is narrowed down to only schools, as they are base in the description of an academic institution. Despite numerous promising initiatives from the government to promote student success in schools, overall gains in student performance have been disappointing. Some commentators have suggested that nothing less than a fundamental redesign of the educational system will begin to address the hurdles faced by students in succeeding at school (Boyd Shouse, 1997). Coleman (1997) noted that the highly bureaucratic nature of Government schools stifles creative problem solving and blocks receptivity to large-scale and transformative system reform. He described schools as administratively driven organizations with long feedback loops from the top of the organization (for example, the principal) to component subsystems (for example, teachers and students). Coleman consi dered schools with decentralized authority structures and norms of accountability and social support, which he labels as output-driven organizations, as having more promise than ones with traditional bureaucratic forms for increasing teacher and student performance. With growing concerns about the ability of the public education system to respond to the needs of students (Orfield et al., 2004), many voices in the school reform movement have discussed the need for schools to operate as learning organizations, which addresses the importance of faculty and staff working together to solve problems through networking and team learning (Senge et al., 2000). The degree to which schools function as learning organizations may not only influence the willingness of school employees to embrace new innovations for promoting student achievement, but also their personal well-being, their sense of efficacy in working with students, their work satisfaction, and their evaluation of the school as a hi gh-performing organization. A burgeoning number of empirical investigations offer support for these types of positive effects from schools functioning as learning organizations (Lick, 2006; Orthner et al., 2006). I believe that understanding schools as learning organizations offers the potential to unlock the creative and dynamic processes that schools require to undergo fundamental and significant change initiatives. Only then do we believe that schools will begin to address the challenges they face in educating children and youths and in closing the significant gaps in educational achievement and life success. The phenomenon known as the learning organisations has during the past three decades been discussed widely in the literature (Khadra Rawabdeh, 2006; Moilanen, 2001, 2005; Hawkins, 1991; Watkins Marsick, 1993; Senge, 1990; Pedler, Burgoyne Boydell, 1991). Unfortunately, the concept of the learning organization remains abstract and elusive for many school level practitioners, which reflects, in part, a strong leaning toward a constructivist approach in the study of organizational learning. School personnel also have relatively few tools available to examine this aspect of their schools, and assessment is the first step in the evidence-based practice planning sequence. During the past century much has been learned about how the brain works and how students learn. We have also learned that how schools can be organized in what that can enhance the quality of learning that students experience and we know a great deal about the kinds of conditions that are necessary for change to occur. The issue in Indian Educational system is to find a way to create the conditions that will encourage the learning organization concept which is needed to transform Indian academic organizations. What is also clear is that leadership is a critical component of the transformation of education. However, the kind of leadership that is needed is fundamentally different than what has traditionally been the case. Leaders must be able to transform their academic institutions. This has been widely discussed the literature (Jones Rudd, 2007; Reed, 2006; Bartling Bartlett, 2005; CASEL, 2006; Bamburg, 1997; West, 1999; Telford, 1996; Barnett, Marsh Carven, 2003; Stander Rothman n, 2009) and hence the inclusion of this as a variable in this study. As small schools become more autonomous, they create new identities and establish unique school cultures. It is also believed that the schools culture is inextricably linked to classroom culture. Many researchers have explored the challenges of building school culture (Silver, 2003; Zilwa, 2007; Ferreira Hill, 2008; Niemann Kotzà ©, 2006; Thomas Willcoxson, 1998; Raywid, 2001;). The researches explore various approaches to the issue of organizational culture, including techniques from the business world, the connection to physical spaces, and the use of traditions (Berg Wilderom, 2004; Fard.et.al, 2007;). A schools culture includes the obvious elements of schedules, curriculum, demographics, and policies, as well as the social interactions that occur within those structures and give a school its look and feel as friendly, elite, competitive, inclusive, and so on. Just as culture is critical to understanding the dynamics behind any thriving community, organization, or business, t he daily realities and deep structure of school life hold the key to educational success. Reforms that strive for educational excellence are likely to fail unless they are meaningfully linked to the schools unique culture and hence the inclusion of this variable in this study. Teachers play an important role in the success of any school. The personal commitment of the teacher has a very strong influence in the smooth functioning of the school and the school to develop into a learning organization. Personal commitment could be commitment for ones own development and commitment for the development of the school and students. Research on commitment has generally focused on either the antecedents or the consequences of commitment. Early studies of commitment explored the antecedents of commitment and found four general antecedents, namely: personal characteristics, job characteristics, work experiences, and role-related characteristics (Mathieu and Hamel 1989; Mowday, Porter and Steers 1982). Some of the earlier studies also explored the role played by demographic variables on commitment. The demographic variables found to have influence on commitment are: age (Mathieu and Zajac 1990), organizational tenure (Mathieu and Hamel 1989), position tenure (Gregersen and Black 1992), and education (DeCotiis and Summers 1987). Furthermore, Glisson and Durick (1988) identified skill variety and role ambiguity as predictors of satisfaction and leadership, and the age of the organization as predictor of commitment. The impact of commitment on organizational level outcomes has also been explored in a number of studies. However, it is the consequence of affective commitment which is more often studied in the literature. This is because high levels of affective commitment are shown to be related to a number of positive behavioral level outcomes and job attitudes (Hislop 2003; Cooper-Hakim and Viswesvaran 2005). Further Organizational commitment and professional commitment of teachers in schools have been researched on (Sood Anand, 2009; Karakus Aslan, 2009; Weber, 1990; Coladarci, 1992; Menep. I, 2010; Iqbal, 2010; Borgei. et.al, 2010;). Although the study of commitment has been advanced from a range of theoretical perspectives, it is interesting to note that very few attempts have been made by researchers to work on personal commitment. The belief is that an understanding of the relationship between leadership, culture and commitment is necessary. As a teacher educator I think that personal com mitment of teachers is very important in transforming schools into a learning organization and no researches have been done in this area, hence the inclusion of the variable in this study. Conceptual Framework Schools as Learning Organization To present a theoretical framework in which the school as learning organization can be grounded, the study is using The learning disciplines (Senge et al., 1996:4). According to Peter Senge (1990: 3) learning organizations are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together. While all people have the capacity to learn, the structures in which they have to function are often not conducive to reflection and engagement. Furthermore, people may lack the tools and guiding ideas to make sense of the situations they face. Organizations that are continually expanding their capacity to create their future require a fundamental shift of mind among their members.  For Peter Senge, real learning gets to the heart of what it is to be human. We become able to re -create ourselves. This applies to both individuals and organizations. Thus, for a learning organization it is not enough to survive. Survival learning or what is more often termed adaptive learning is important indeed it is necessary. But for a learning organization, adaptive learning must be joined by generative learning, learning that enhances our capacity to create (Senge 1990:14). The dimension that distinguishes learning from more traditional organizations is the mastery of certain basic disciplines or component technologies. The five that Peter Senge identifies are said to be converging to innovate learning organizations. They are: Systems thinking, Personal mastery, Mental models, Building shared vision Team learning Personal mastery According to Senge et al. (1996:194) the term mastery evolved from the medieval French, maitre, which meant someone who was exceptionally proficient and skilled a master of a craft. Maitre as it is used today means the capacity, not only to produce results, but also to master the principles that underpin the way an individual produces those results. Mastery is a commitment to be the best in whatever is done (Secretan, 1997:54). Educators who strive to become masters of their craft are often those who would be described as being committed to their work in their respective schools. According to Zecha (1994:6) and Kushman (1992:6), there are two types of educator commitment, namely organizational commitment and commitment to student learning which are effective ingredients for transforming schools into learning organisations. Mental models Research by Senge et al. (1996:235-236) indicates that mental models are subjective images, deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations and stories that people carry in their minds about themselves, other people, institutions and events that take place in the world. These mental maps act as a filtering system for our judgments and influence how we take actions based on these judgments. If these mental maps or models are not questioned they could become blockages to change. To succeed in transforming schools into learning organizations it is important that individual educators learn how to unearth their internal pictures (subjective images) of the world and bring these to the surface and critically scrutinize them. This can be done if meaningful conversations are encouraged in the school, where educators expose their own thinking patterns and also listen to other colleagues. These conversations can influence individuals to shift their thinking patterns and see the other side of the story. Shared vision A shared vision is an all-encompassing world view which provides focus for an individual and the team concerning what is to be learnt and what is to be valued (Bierema Berdish, 1996:6). This shared vision answers the question: What will success look like? This question acts as a motivating force for sustained action to achieve individual and school goals. It is a guiding image of success formed in terms of a contribution to the school. According to Johnson and Johnson (1994:9) a shared vision creates a basic sense of sink or swim together among the members of the school. A powerful vision binds educators to mutual commitments through collaboration to achieve individual and school goals. Team learning The discipline of team learning starts with dialogue, which is the capacity of members of a team to suspend their assumptions and enter into a genuine thinking together. According to Senge et al., 1996:352), team learning is the discipline that has to do with learning about alignment. Alignment means functioning as a whole or in a cohesive group committed to a common purpose. This alignment is achieved through sustained dialogue that may result in knowledge sharing and recognizing interdependencies among team members (Murgatroyd Morgan, 1993:73). The discipline of dialogue involves learning how to recognize the patterns of interaction in teams that undermine learning. The patterns of defensiveness are often deeply ingrained in how a team operates. Therefore, the impact of team learning is the establishment of shared values, vision, mission, and core strategies to achieve individual and school goals. The fifth discipline, systems thinking, incorporates the other four learning discipl ines. Systems thinking Systems thinking is based on system dynamics; it is highly conceptual and provides ways of understanding practical school issues. It looks at systems in terms of particular types of cycles and it includes explicit system modeling of complex issues. The discipline of systems thinking teaches that in any social phenomenon it is important to look at the whole picture. In systems thinking the school is looked at as a system that is interconnected to different parts of life that intersect and influence each other. These interrelated parts are bound together in such a way that they become coherent to one another (French Bell, 1995:93). The components of a school include learners, educators, context, student learning processes and any identifiable component that affects learning. Therefore, the essence of systems thinking lies in a shift of mind to one that sees:à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ interrelationships rather than linear cause-effect chains; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ processes of change rather than sn ap shots. The discipline of systems thinking starts with understanding the concept of feedback: that is how actions can reinforce or counteract (balance) each other. In trying to build effective learning environments, educators have to learn to see the deeper patterns and interrelationships of change. Leadership Leadership is a described as being one of social sciences most examined phenomena (Antonakis, Cianciolo, Sternberg, 2004). Shoemaker (1998) suggested that leadership is difficult to characterize as the field is punctured by inconclusive definitions as to the role and function of leadership. The latest chapter in the almost 100 year history of leadership research is dominated by the development of transformational leadership theory embodied in the Full Range of Leadership Model (Antonakis, et al., 2004; Bass, 1998). This approach to leadership focuses on the charismatic and affective elements of leadership. Northouse (2004) described transformational leadership as a process that changes and transforms individuals. It is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals, and includes assessing followers motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings (p. 169). Furthermore, as Bass (1985) advocated, by engaging in transformational leadershi p behaviors a leader transforms followers. In reality this means that followers are changed from being self-centered individuals to being committed members of a group, they are then able to perform at levels far beyond what normally might have been expected (Antonakis, et al., 2004, p.175). The model of transformational leadership includes a continuum of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire forms of leadership. Each form characterizes aspects of the dynamic process of interaction between leader and follower but identifies certain patterns and features to distinguish transformational leadership from transactional and laissez-faire styles (Avolio, 1999). The transformational leader pays particular attention to others needs, which, in turn, raises followers levels of motivation (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1998). Furthermore, a leader of this type encourages others to reach their full potential while also adopting a strong ethical characteristic. Whereas, transactional leaders, approach followers with an eye to exchanging one thing for another (Burns, 1978, p. 4), with the leaders use of either reward or punishment contingent on the followers completion or non-completion of assigned tasks. Laissez-faire leadership involves indifference and avoidance as a leader with this profile will avoid making decisions, abdicate responsibilities, divert attention from hard choices, and will talk about getting down to work, but never really does (Bass, 1998, p. 148). Senge proposes that in learning organizations the leaders new work should include a commitment to: being the organizations architect; providing stewardship; and being a teacher. For schools to become learning organizations, the schools leader(s) must accept responsibility for creating conditions that promote and enhance that learning. Principals must create opportunities for teachers to acquire information about what is occurring in the school and engage them in finding solutions to the problems that occur. A fundamental difference between the old view of leadership and that proposed by Senge is that the leader has a responsibility to create opportunities for teachers to learn about current research and apply that research in their classrooms in an environment that promotes learning. Perhaps most important of all, principals need to create a climate that promotes risk taking and eliminates the fear of failure. If these things can be done successfully schools will then possess the capacity to develop a shared vision about what needs to be done and engage in the kinds of activities that are needed to make their shared vision a reality. Organizational Culture Organizational culture has been defined from various perspectives (Carroll and Nafukho, 2006; Popper and Lipshitz, 1995; Shien, 1990; Alvesson, 2002; Cook and Yanow, 1993; Adler and Jelinek, 1996; Argris, 1999). According to Marguardt (2002), culture is an organizations values, beliefs, practices, rituals and customs. The culture of a learning organization habitually learns and works to integrate processes in all organization functions. In effect, the learning organizations culture is constantly evolving and travels along an infinite continuum in a harmonious learning environment. Ultimately, the goal is an exchange of useful knowledge leading to innovation, and improved learning public organizations. The various terms used in the context of organizational culture are: values, ethics, beliefs, ethos, climate, environmental culture. Ethics refers to normative aspects to what is socially desirable. Values, beliefs: attitudes and norms are interrelated. Interaction between beliefs and values results in attitude formation and then produces norms. Values and benefits are the core, while attitudes are the next layer, followed by the norms or behavior. Then these get institutionalized, or when they accumulate and integrate we have social phenomena. The eight important values relevant to institution building are openness, confrontation, trust, authenticity, pro-action, autonomy, collaboration and experimentation. Openness: openness can be defined as a spontaneous expression of feeling and thoughts, and the sharing of these without defensiveness. Openness is in both directions, receiving and giving. Both these may relate to ideas (including suggestions, feedback (including criticism), and feelings. For example, openness means receiving without reservation, and taking steps to encourage more feedbacks and suggestions from customers, colleagues and others. Similarly, it means giving without hesitation, ideas, information, feedback, feelings, etc. openness may also mean spatial openness, in terms of accessibility. Confrontation: confrontation can be defined as facing rather than shying away from problems. It also implies deeper analysis of interpersonal problems. All this involves taking up challenges. Trust: trust is not used in the moral sense. It is reflected in maintaining the confidentiality of information shared by others, and in not misusing it. It is also reflected in a sense of a assurance that others will help, when such help is needed and will honor mutual commitments and obligations. Trust is also reflected in accepting what another person says at face value, and not searching for ulterior motives. Trust is an extremely important ingredient in the institution building processes. Authenticity: authenticity is the congruence between what one feels, says and does. It is reflected in owning up ones mistakes, and in unreserved sharing of feelings. Authenticity is closer to openness. The outcome of authenticity in an organization is reduced distortion in communication. Pro-action: pro-action means taking initiative, preplanning and taking preventive action, and calculating the payoffs of an alternative course before taking action. The term pro-act can be contrasted with the term react. Pro-activity gives initiative to the person to start a new process or set a new pattern of behavior. Pro-activity involves unusual behavior. In this sense pro-activity means freeing oneself from, and taking action beyond immediate concerns. A person showing pro-activity functions at all the three levels of feeling, thinking and action. Autonomy: Autonomy is using and giving freedom to plan and act in ones own sphere. It means respecting and encouraging individual and role autonomy. It develops mutual respect and is likely to result in willingness to take on responsibility, individual initiative, better succession planning. The main indicator of autonomy is effective delegation in organization and reduction in references made to senior people for approval of planned actions. Collaboration: Collaboration is giving help to, and asking for help from, others. It means working together (individuals and groups to solve problems and team spirit. The outcome of collaboration includes timely help, team work, sharing of experiences, improved communication and improved resource sharing. Experimenting: Experimenting means using and encouraging innovative approaches to solve problems, using feedbacks for improving, taking a fresh look at things and encouraging creativity. Personal Commitment Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979, p. 226), defined commitment as the relative strength of an individuals identification with, and involvement in a particular organization. Although many definitions of commitment have been presented since the seminal work of Mowday et al. (1979), it is the conception of Meyer and Allen (1991), which identifies three distinctive dimensions affective, normative, and continuance that has been the cornerstone of extant theorizing in the area of commitment (Herrbach, 2006). Mowday, Porter and Steers (1982) Model Commitment (Attitudinal Commitment), to an organization involves three components: (a) a strong belief in and acceptance of organizational goals and values, (b) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and (c) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization (Mowday et al., 1982). Research on organizational commitment has been examined primarily in relation to labour turnover (Ferris Aranya, 1983; Hom, Katerberg Hulin, 1979; Huselid Day, 1991; Mowday, Steers Porter, 1979; OReilly Caldwell, 1980; Wiener Vardi, 1980; Steers, 1977; Stumpf Hartman, 1984). Meyer and Allen (1997) Model Meyer and Allen (1997) view organizational commitment as a three component concept. The three components in their model are Affective, Continuous, and Normative. The affective commitment describes the emotional attachment an individual has with the organization, their identification with the goals and values of the organization and the level of their involvement (Zanagro, 2001). Affective commitment is taken as a construct closely related to identification (Bergami Bagozzi, 2000). Continuance commitment is based on the cost that an employee associates with leaving the organizations, such as reduction in pay, pension, benefits, or facilities (Herbiniak Alluto, 1972). Normative commitment is associated with employees feelings of obligation to continue employment due to the work culture and other socially accepted norms (Weiner Gechman, 1977). The less common approach to viewing commitment is in terms of obligation. Of the three components least is known about the development of norm ative commitment (Meyer Allen, 1997). The three dimensions highlight commitment from the perspectives of attachment, obligation, and necessity respectively. From the above conceptual framework, a model is drawn for better understanding. Organizational Culture Openness Confrontation Trust Authenticity Proaction Autonomy Collaboration Experimentation Leadership Transformational Transactional Laissez-Faire Personal Commitment Own Development Student Institutional Development Learning Organization Personal Mastery Mental Models Shared Vision Team Learning Systems Thinking Review of Literature Schools as Learning Organization Bowen et.al., 2007-Assessing the Functioning of Schools as Learning Organizations: Using data from the population of employees in 11 middle schools in North Carolina and building on an earlier analysis, this study examines the reliability and validity of a new assessment tool for assessing schools as learning organizations: the School Success Profile Learning Organization. The results align with the conceptual model that informed the development of the measure, including support for the two hypothesized learning organization components: actions and sentiments. Kelleher Michael, 2007 Learning Organization: The author designed a model for a learning organization: The model of the learning organization, with its three dimensional approach, proposes strategies within the domains of individual, team and organizational learning. He concluded by saying if lifelong learning is to become a reality, it will become increasingly important to ensure that strategies and actions support the development of learning organizations. If overlooked, the world of work could well be that area of peoples lives where learning is not explicit, supported and developed. Moloi K.C..et al., 2006 Educators perceptions of the school as a learning organization in the Vanderbijlpark-North District, South Africa: This article outlines the principal findings of research that sought to provide a comprehensive understanding of schools as learning organizations in the Vanderbijl Park-North District of the Gauteng province of South Africa. The quantitative research methodology used was of major importance in obtaining data that were grounded largely on the theoretical framework of learning organizations as wel